A Problem Of Sexism - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2166 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2019/06/24 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Sexism Essay Did you like this example? Abstract Sexism exists and will continue to sprout thorns in the vines of modern efforts to promote social progression. Its a reality that is sobering and sharp in the side of activists and marginalized communities, but its history and continuously changing effect on society is interesting considering social norms and how standards are changing. One way that this is reflected is in the way that advertising and marketing has changed, or rather hasnt, in the past 100 years since the 1920s. The shift in the way that women desired to have themselves represented in society was finally brought to light in a way that the modern world of North America had never seen before: Women could vote. While in hindsight, many would see this as a basic right considering that women make up over 50.8% of the modern day population according to the U.S. 2017 Census, it was not a reality until August 18th, 1920. With this right to vote, it represented much more than just being able to determine who would be voted in to office and legislature, it was the first step to kicking down the barred doors of a quelled rage and necessity to be a full and equal part of society. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "A Problem Of Sexism" essay for you Create order With all of this in mind, representation matters to this 50.8% of the world, as its ripples in how it affects culture and stereotypes in society impact the daily lives of women and female identifying communities. This representation or lack of thereof is primarily pushed through advertising and branding. Consumerism is the main driving force of our economy and society, Americans faced with different types of marketing and branding from a daily basis as much as a minute by minute ratio. Analytics can even advertise different products and campaigns depending on your search history on any device. With all of this in mind, why is it that women are constantly objectified and hyper sexualized in ads when the reality is that the majority of women do not see themselves represented or recognized in these campaigns. To further investigate this, My question is Does sexual appeal and sexism within advertising actually work and how does it reflect in the modern market? Aerie v.s. Victorias Secret marketing, and literature review While the demographic of todays market strives towards diversifying the way products are marketed towards women and men, the undertone of using sexuality in an idealized and fantasized manner still prevalent today, one of the most basic examples seen in the Victoria Secret Campaigns where the models often differ from what the customers actually look like. However, this is typical considering that the right to vote for women was only acquired within less than 150 years since the womens suffrage movement. In a study I conducted to examine the general opinion of a random sampling size as to what advertisement the viewer gravitates towards, I presented two different campaigns from the companies Aerie and Victorias Secret companies that market towards the female demographic and sell lingerie and comfort wear. The viewer was shown a campaign ad photo and a video to accompany it. They were then asked the question of Select which Campaign you find to be a better advertisement in which would more so incline you to buy the advertised product which in this case is womens lingerie. and made a selection. Both survey images did not include the company name in order to remain un biased. These results came back in stating that they preferred the Aerie campaign in comparison to the Victorias secret Ad, with only one vote for the Victoria Secret campaign and the other 15 votes for the Aerie advertisement. It can also be noted that in the last year according to Business Insider, that Aeries in store sales went up by a record 38% in the first quarter of 2018, while VS brands went down by 5% last year. This data only further confirms that the market in regard to using sexuality and women as a selling point within advertisements are moving in a different area that supports more so a body positive message no matter what demographic rather than enlisting in providing a photoshopped fantasy. The Aerie campaigns also make it a point within their ads to include that all the photographs and videos used to advertise for the underwear brand are untouched and have not been airbrushed to stray from the organic image. This is a stark contrast to the Victoria Secret campaign which is infamous for retouching and using models who, according to customers who have been interviewed in the past, are hyper sexualized and unrealistic. In the article Empowerment/Sexism: Figuring Female Sexual Agency in Contemporary Advertising by Rosalind Gill, Gill explains how this shift came to be in the modern age. Advertisers had to respond to ?sign fatigue, to viewer scepticism, and also to the impact of feminism on lifestyles and attitudes (Goldman, 1992). Womens increasing financial independence meant that they became targets for new products and also forced a reconsideration of earlier modes of representation: showing a woman draped over a carto take an emblematic image of sexism from the 1970smay not be the best strategy if the aim is to sell that car to women. Moreover, by the late 1980s and early 1990s, advertisers had begun to recognize the significance of many womens anger at being objectified and bombarded with unattainable, idealized images of femininity. Advertisers started to rethink their engagement with female consumers and their ways of representing women. There is also a strategy that advertisers have used in the past in where in the past, the female icon used in adverts were shown as their worth to a man being the most valued aspect of their existence, which can be shown in this example of a vitamins commercial. The commercial displayed below here states that The harder a wife works, the cuter she looks! and when asked how the wife can always seem to thrive on household chores, she responds that she takes her vitamins. The goal here being that if she wants to be worthy of her husbands attention and to be beautiful to him, she must work harder to keep the house running and keep her pep up while doing it. In the early 21st century however, there was a new icon that is identified as a Midriff who encapsulates what is the target audience in this century. The midriff, as defined by Rosalind Gill as a young, attractive, heterosexual woman who knowingly and deliberately plays with her sexual power and is always ?up for it (that is, sex). This figure has become known in some advertising circles as the ?midriff, named after the fashion for exposing this part of the body that was ubiquitous between the mid-1990s and the mid-2000s This can be seen for example in the advertisements for the Wonderbra? ® where the woman in the advertisement is seen in a cleavage bearing bra, and in between her breasts is the slogan I cant cook, who cares? The point of it was to use feminism in a way to appropriate it to the benefit of advertising agencies. This strategy called ?commodity feminism tries to take the energy that is in feminist ideals but repackage them where it loses its social and political objec tives. This new shift in this recent time is taking a new direction with how women are depicted in adverts. The modern woman is financially independent, is usually part of the LGBTQ community, and is aware of the deafening results of the #MeToo movement. Above all, what people want in the products that they buy and the adverts that are directed to them is to see themselves in these advertisements. This can be seen in the shaving adverts from the company Billie which uses inclusivity and representation to advertise their razors. The models are some who are minorities, lgbtq youth, and women who get to choose However, Whenever, (and) if (they) ever shave. It is an unprecedented take on traditional shaving campaigns, where the actress or model is a typically a heterosexual white woman who shows that being shaved is the equivalent of being attractive and feminine. Ads like Billie show that generation x women are redefining what it means to be feminine, and are taking power of the definition. Its important to note, that while these are facts and realities of our daily lives, why does it matter? Advertising and Marketing in a hyper consumerist country and world is extremely important because if affects everything in our daily lives. Like said previously, adverts surround us continuously and infiltrate our phones, computers, and social medias as much as 5,000 adverts exposed to a single person daily. And when something becomes a normality, often it can be hard to discern how it is affecting people psychologically. Shaving campaigns from the 1920s are an excellent example as to how something that was used to sell an item became a mentality for the majority of the modern world. The 20s were filled with everything the American dream could offer. Riches, entertainment, luxury, and the liberation of female sexuality that came with the suffragette movement to secure womens right to vote. The Flapper was a stylish young woman who challenged conventional standards, one of them being the lengths of their dresses and lack of sleeves. In this change, shaving companies saw an opportunity to take on a new consumer, and used rhetoric to shame women for body hair. Since much of a womans goal and intention was to marry rich or win the attention of a man, this made them east targets for companies to start gearing products towards females to increase sales. How embarrassing! says the man in the image at seeing a woman with a mustache. This use of shame to make women buy the razors is just a small example at the larger point that marketing an idea can change the mentality of an entire country and world at large. As stated in Provocateur: Images of Women and Minorities in Ad vertising By Anthony J. Cortese, Ads try to tell us who we should and shouldnt be. This couldnt be any truer, in this example where a marketing scheme became a global mentality. Cortese also illustrates the three main trends in advertising towards women. There is a major distinction between what is considered to be appropriate behavior for males and females Males are dominant females are passive insubordinate. The sexual objectification of women requires that they remain silent and lack a voice The masculine role is appreciated it while the feminine counterpart is disregarded or scorned These guidelines to how marketing has affected society is not only unbelievable, but is still relevant to this day in the way that companies seem to gear their strategies when marketing their products towards a changing demographic. In an interview that I conducted with Karen Cudillo, Glamor Magazines college woman of the year, we discussed some of the long term affects of how advertising can either hurt or support women and all identifying persons in the strides to make changes to become a more inclusive and validating society for all persons. As an activist for not just only women, but immigrants and LGBTQ youth, everything matters. You cant put up a billboard and not have the intention of impacting a person. Actions are caused by intentions and those actions have the power to disregard human kind or to bring it to the table and make it a worthy partner in this circle we call life. Karen recalls growing up as a immigrant in the United States and often felt that she did not see hers elf represented in what Corporate America defined as American. There were so many times that I would look at my friends who had dolls who were dressed as doctors, princesses, and career women, and they were all white. It seems silly at first, but in hindsight it is those small details in your upbringing and branding from companies that give off the message that minorities are not destined to be doctors, lawyers, or Vets when they grow up. In essence, it is the little things, and often the big billboard signs that shape the way that society functions. It has only been 150+ years since the start of women having a say in voting results, but since that time much has happened that could lead to a more successful future in where advertising agencies as well as modeling/acting agents will select people who represent the consumers who are buying into the product, rather than just using women as a tool to further exploit and objectify them in society for the pleasure and political agenda of men. While in the past it would have been suitable to display women in a domesticated and minor counterpart to the male species, this is no longer the case and the sooner that agencies realize this, the better they can serve not only the companies in which they are working for, but the people who buy into them.

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The Ways the British Government Attempted to Hide the...

The Ways the British Government Attempted to Hide the Effects of the Blitz from the People For the British civilians bearing the home front of the Blitz was both a frightening and surreal experience. In Britain, most people expect to be told the truth, and newspapers and radios are allowed to speak the facts. However once the country was at war it all changed, and the British people had to accept that the Government who took control of the media was for the good of the country. Specific facts and details of bombings werent shown in the whole truth, and often the news was twisted to focus on the heroism of the British. This became known as propaganda and censorship, and were tools to keep the†¦show more content†¦This was used in countries like Germany and Italy and was done using great force, whereas in Great Britain it needed to be subtler. By using government guidelines the media censored itself, however the government would step in if these rules were broken. In either Democracies or Dictatorships the result was the same - any information that may affect morale and the war effort was to be banned. So the Government needed to have the full support of the media in order to Brain wash the people of Britain, and if the media did not co-operate then newspapers and magazines were closed down. At the start of WW2 the Government set up the Ministry of Information to control what was being said to the British public. It was the job of the ministry to persuade people that victory was at hand despite the massive destruction and death toll around them. This was opened in September 1939, and from August 1941 was helped by the Political Warfare Executive, in order to produce mostly black propaganda aimed at other countries. Propaganda faced no restrictions, and all governments were prepared to lie to help them win the war. One of the aims was to reach a conclusion without first examining the information. The two most important uses of propaganda were to praise one side, which were fighting for the right reasons, and to alsoShow MoreRelatedBlitzkrieg Essay1501 Words   |  7 PagesBlitzk rieg The word Blitz itself is a shortened form of the German word Blitzkrieg meaning lightening war, it means a heavy bombing attack from the air. It is often used to describe the German air raids on London in 1940, but many other cities were also blitzed. It was widely believed that Britain would be heavily bombed immediately after the war was declared and huge amounts of deaths and injuries were expected with mass burials planned and 1,250,000 cardboard coffinsRead MoreThe Effect of World War II on the Lives of People at Home Essay5431 Words   |  22 PagesThe Effect of World War II on the Lives of People at Home World war two was officially started with the invasion of Poland, September 1939 where the British being an ally of Poland and disagreeing with Hitler’s actions, declared war against Germany. 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A compelling case can be made for viewing the decades of the global scramble for colonies after 1870 as a predictableRead MoreStrategic Marketing Management337596 Words   |  1351 Pagespublisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone: ( 44) 1865 843830, fax: ( 44) 1865 853333, e-mail: permissions@elsevier.co.uk. 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We have continued Marketing Wars, which many of you recommended, and reinstated Comebacks of firms iii iv †¢ Preface rising from adversity. I have also brought back Ethical Mistakes, because I believe that organizations

Pregnancy and Progressive Treatment Options Free Essays

Part 1. The practice that I want to have is an OB/GYN. The reason why I want to have an OB/GYN is because I am fascinated with how babies are born, and what goes into everything during pregnancies. We will write a custom essay sample on Pregnancy and Progressive Treatment Options or any similar topic only for you Order Now It is an absolute miracle. My practice will be a little more involved than most OB/GNY’s. I guess you could call it a â€Å"one stop shop† OB/GYN. I know that from my personal experience of having children, I always had to go to different places to get certain things done. Just for example, in order for me to get an ultrasound I would have to go to a hospital, my OB/GYN did not really do them there. And when I needed to get blood work done, I had to do to Quest to have blood drawn. And when I had to deliver my baby, I had to go to the hospital. Now the OB/GYN that I have in mind I will have all of that there. There will be an area of the doctor’s office for women who need to get blood work done, another area to do ultrasounds, and believe it or not, another area to deliver the baby. The type of people that I will have working at my practice will be first and for most, the OB/GYN. In other words, the baby doctor. That will be the person who checks on the pregnant woman throughout her pregnancy, and the person who delivers as well. The next will be nurses. They are the ones who will help the doctor’s, and help take care of the patients. The next will be the ultrasound technicians. The people who will be giving the girls their ultrasounds. The other people that I will have be working there are the technicians who will do your blood work. And of course there will be the girls who work behind the desk, the assistants who schedule appointments, file the paper work, things like that. I almost forgot to clarify that my OB/GYN will only be for pregnant women. I think that it makes it easier that way, just to focus on one thing. And that is the type of practice that I will have. Part 2. Missions Statement As a premier medical group in Bristol Pennsylvania, our goal is to provide current, quality comprehensive medical care to a large number of area women in their pregnancy. We continuously strive to create a patient to doctor relationship that goes beyond today’s standard, partnering with our patients through education, diagnosis, progressive treatment options and ongoing care, while providing the best care to our pregnant patients. Making them feel comfortable as much as possible. How to cite Pregnancy and Progressive Treatment Options, Papers

Negligence And Rights of Creditors free essay sample

Negligence, also known as Culpa, is the failure to observe for the protection of the interests of another person, that degree of care, precaution and vigilance which the circumstances justly demand, whereby such other person suffers injury. Negligence can also be defined as: The omission of that degree of diligence which is required by the nature of the obligation and corresponding to the circumstances of persons, time and place. Article 1173 Civil Code) The determination of the existence of negligence is concerned with what the defendant did or did not do. The state of mind of the actor is not important; good faith or use of sound judgment is immaterial. The existence of negligence in a given case is not determined by reference to the personal judgment but by the behavior of the actor in the situation before him. (Picart vs. Smith) Is a conduct that creates an undue risk of harm to others. We will write a custom essay sample on Negligence And Rights of Creditors or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The determination of negligence is a question of foresight on the part of the actor. Even if a particular injury was not foreseeable, the risk is still foreseeable if possibility of injury is foreseeable. Forseeability involves the question of that is, the existence of some real likelihood of some damage and the likelihood is of such appreciable weight reasonably to induce, action to avoid it. Culpa Contractual (Contractual Negligence) Culpa contractual or contractual negligence are negligence in contracts resulting in their breach. It is governed by CC provisions on Obligations and Contracts, particularly Articles: 1170 to 1174 of the Civil Code. In Culpa Contractual: The foundation of the liability of the defendant is the contract. In breach of contract committed through the negligence of employee, the employer cannot erase his primary and direct liability by invoking exercise of diligence of a good father of a family in the selection and supervision of the employee. 2. Culpa Aquiliana (Quasi-Delict) Culpa Aquiliana is negligence which by itself is the source of an obligation between the parties not so related before by any preexisting contract. It is also called tort or quasi-delict and is governed mainly by Article 2176 of the Civil Code. Culpa Aquiliana: It is a separate source of obligation independent of contract The presumptive responsibility for the negligence of his servants can be rebutted by proof of the exercise of due care in their selection and supervision. Only involves private concern. The Civil Code by means of indem-nification merely repairs the damage. Includes all acts in which any kind of fault or negligence intervenes. Liability is direct and primary. Whoever by act or omission causes damage to another, there being fault or negligence is obliged to pay for the damage done (Article 2176 Civil Code). Essential Requisites for a quasi-delictual action: 1. Act or omission constituting fault or negligence. 2. Damage caused by the said act or omission. 3. Causal relation between the damage and the act or omission. 3. Culpa Criminal (Criminal Negligence) Culpa Criminal or Criminal Negligence is negligence resulting in the commission of a crime. The same negligent act causing damages may produce civil liability arising from a crime under Article 100 of the Revised Penal Code, or create an action for quasi-delict under Article 2176 of the Civil Code. It is governed by Article 365 of the Revised Penal Code. Culpa Criminal: Affects the public interest. The Revised Penal Code punishes or corrects criminal act. Punished only if there is a penal law clearly covering them. Liability of the employer of the actor-employee is subsidiary in crimes. The 3 kinds of negligence furnish separate, distinct, and independent bases of liability or causes of action. A single act or omission may give rise to two or more causes of action.

Could Socialism ever Work

Table of Contents Introduction Socialism: A Definition Why Socialism can Work A Case against Socialism Discussion Conclusion References Introduction There are a number of significant economic ideologies currently practiced by governments all over the world. Obviously, the most popular ideology is capitalism, which is characterized by private ownership of property and the means of production and each individual is responsible for their own lives.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Could Socialism ever Work? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Socialism is another significant ideology that promises to transform government systems and create a world where fairness and prosperity for all is guaranteed. In spite of its inspiring promises, socialism continues to be viewed with suspicion by many governments and citizens who express doubts about its ability to work. This paper will argue that socialism could work with sign ificant benefits for the entire society. Socialism: A Definition Ludwig (2009) defines Socialism as â€Å"a policy which aims at constructing a society in which the means of production are socialized† (p.20). Socialism advocates for the abolition of the private-enterprise economy favoured by capitalism and the establishment of a system where public ownership maintains a dominant position in the economy. Why Socialism can Work Socialism will lead to a more sustainable community characterized by low poverty rates. High government involvement and a huge welfare system will lead to greater distribution of wealth among the citizenry. Citizens of many developed nations are beginning to acknowledge that the capitalistic system is unsustainable. Problems such as starvation and homelessness are being experienced by the richest countries in the world due to a lack of emphasis on social services. Socialism is characterized by an emphasis on provision of social services by the government . Galbraith and Ludmila (2004) document that this crucial services decrease the mortality rate and increase the standards of living for the citizens. In a socialistic society, the government in exchange for high taxation guarantees pension, housing, and healthcare. Norway, a country that leans to socialism, enjoys very low poverty rates and unemployment rates compared to countries that are primarily capitalistic such as the US. Socialism can work in the current environment where poverty levels are rising and unemployment rates are increasing in most countries. Socialism can work since it provides a feasible way to deal with the gross inequalities that the world currently faces due to capitalism. Citizens in both developing and developed nations all over the world are experiencing growing income disparities that are increasing the divide between the rich and the poor.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More These social injustices can be blamed on an exploitative capitalistic system that rewards the capital owners at the expense of the labour providers (Schwartz Schulman 2000). Socialism is the most favourable system for the working class who make up the majority of the population in all countries. The socialism system insists that the worker should play a bigger role in the decision making process in the industry. By doing this, the worker will play an active role in the community and therefore address the imbalances that exist due to the capitalistic system which has made workers inactive players in the industry. Adopting socialism will ensure that a fair system is adopted therefore bringing about social equality. Socialism might work since it provides a means to amend the ills that society currently faces because of capitalism. Specifically, the system proposes to bring back an emphasis on important human values such as compassion and altruism (Ludwig 2009). Because of the individualistic nature of capitalism, these values have been all but destroyed with the emphasis being placed on making a profit no matter the human cost. Socialism will bring back these human values since the system will emphasis on the collective well being of society members. This system will obligate people to put the interest of others ahead of their own and work towards the common interest. It is conceivable that once people see the advantage that A Case against Socialism Opponents of socialism argue that this system would result in a significant reduction in production since people would not have a strong motivation to put direct their energies towards optimal production. A major concept of socialism is that the economy should be run to meet the needs of the majority and not to enrich a few individuals (Busky 2000). This collectivist ideology would be very demoralizing since persons will not be justly rewarded for their individual efforts. However, this argume nt is based on presumptions as opposed to absolute facts. Socialism does not encourage laziness as can be deduced from the socialist principle, which declares â€Å"from each according to his ability, to each according to his work† (Busky 2000, p.115). It can therefore be expected that people will continue working hard even in an economic system that favours public ownership. The wealth and advancement currently enjoyed by the world can be credited to the capitalistic system. For this reason, policy makers and citizens fear that a socialism system will lead to a decrease in wealth creation and advancement. This fear is not unfounded since historically, countries that practice capitalism have experienced greater growth than those practising socialism (Ludwig 2009).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Could Socialism ever Work? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Private ownership is therefore regarded as the foun dation of economic growth and advancement. However, public ownership does not necessarily lead to poor economic performance as can be seen from the case of China, which has experienced monumental economic growths over the last 2 decades in spite of having a system that is characterized by centralized planning and majority public ownership (Ludwig 2009). Discussion In spite of all the many merits of socialism, capitalism has continued to gain significant support in countries all over the world. While detractors of socialism might see this as a suggestion that a socialistic society would not be feasible, this is not the case. Molyneux (2009) reveals that most people raised in capitalistic societies have been conditioned to view socialism with suspicion and react unfavourably to it. People assume that socialism is synonymous to a charity state where people refuse to work and instead rely on government handouts. The discussions presented in this paper have demonstrated that socialism do es not necessarily result in reduced production. Instead, the system encourages equal distribution and overcomes the many social injustices heightened by capitalism. Conclusion This paper set out to argue that the socialism system could work in the world today with significant benefits for everyone. It began by offering a definition of socialism and proceeded to state some of the reasons why the socialism system can work. Socialism will offer a solution to the harms caused by capitalism and lead to a more equitable society. The paper has also reviewed some of the arguments against socialism and offered rebuttals to the same. From this paper, it is clear that socialism can work in the modern world. However, for this to happen, people need to be educated on what socialism entails in order to remove the many misconceptions and prejudices that most individuals in capitalistic societies have concerning socialism. References Busky, DF 2000, Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey, Greenwood Publishing Group, New York. Galbraith, J Ludmila, K 2004, ‘The Experience of Rising Inequality in Russia and China during the Transition’, The European Journal of Comparative Economics, vol. 1, no.1, pp. 87-106.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Ludwig, M 2009, Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis, Ludwig von Mises Institute, Frankfurt. Molyneux, J 2009, ‘Socialism can Work’, Socialist Review, http://socialistreview.org.uk/332/socialism-can-work. Schwartz, J Schulman, J 2000, Towards Freedom: Democratic Socialist Theory and Practice. This essay on Could Socialism ever Work? was written and submitted by user Irvin Hart to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Mr. Yogesh Vishwanath Chavan †Zero Energy Theory

Mr. Yogesh Vishwanath Chavan – Zero Energy Theory Free Online Research Papers Abstract This zero energy theory has great advantage over all other theories by its inner consistency due to which it can be used at microscopic as well as macroscopic level also. By using this theory, the attempt has been made in order to solve physics some mysterious unsolved problems like, dark matter, definition of space, expansion of the Universe and Gamma ray burst, origin of gravity, loss of mass and jets of black hole, curvature of space-time, equivalence between inertia and gravitational mass, difference in mass of proton and electron even having same value of charge, meaning of antimatter, the Universe with no anti matter etc. Thus, this theory can be used for unification of fundamental forces without need of any string i.e. no need of 11 dimensions, parallel universes, virtual particles like graviton etc. Keywords: Zero Energy, Uncertainty Principle, Gravity, Anti Neutrino, Anti matter. Introduction The energy of a body is its capacity for doing work. Almost all physics law is based upon this term – Energy. In fact, the basic physics law is â€Å"The total amount of energy in the Universe always remains constant and energy neither be created nor destroyed, but can be converted from one form to another form.† We all had accepted this law and are using over hundreds of years without thinking on following points. If energy neither be created nor destroyed, then what is the origin of all the galaxies (matter) in the Universe? In other words, Universe itself violates the above statement. If assume that, some fixed amount of matter was already available in the Universe which fly away apart in terms of galaxies during big bang explosion, then why only that fixed amount of matter was available to the Universe or who supply these fixed amount of matter to the Universe (God?) and why not supplying again? Thus, the statement of â€Å"total amount of energy in the Universe always remains constant† produces only unanswered mysterious questions. The available energy in the Universe is in the form of matter or radiations which are in terms of positive mass. If energy neither be created nor destroyed, then the total amount of energy in the Universe must be zero. Then, where is the negative energy? The only one way of escape from such mysterious questions is to modify above basic law as follow â€Å"The Universe must be continuously creating energy at every point such that the total amount of energy in the Universe should always remain equal to zero†. Thus from above statement, the energy can be created or destroyed in pairs of equal amount of positive and negative energy and for that there is no need of any supplier like God. The Universe is created from zero energy and is still in existence with summation of energy equal to zero. Or, The Universe is a Big Zero. But if it is created from zero energy, then which thing produces pairs of positive and negative energy continuously at every point. The answer is â€Å"Uncertainty Principle† which states that â€Å"Empty space cannot be exactly zero†; hence there should be formation of pairs of opposite sign of energy without violating energy balance as well as uncertainty principle. In other words, â€Å"Unc ertainty principle, itself is the God or Creator of the Universe.† But, if all galaxies are made from positive energy, where is the negative energy? Macroscopic Level (Gravity) Gravitational Constant (G) and Space as Negative Energy The gravitational force between two objects is written as: F = (G*M1*M2)/R2 (1) Where, M1 and M2 are the masses of the two objects, R is the distance between their centers and G is Gravitational Constant = 6.67*10-11 m3/ (Sec2*Kg). This equation is known as Law of Universal Gravitation. In above equation, M1, M2 and R2 are positive values. But, the gravitational force is always attractive force; hence R.H. side of above equation must be negative to represent attractive force. Therefore, gravitational constant (G) must be negative in sign. For e.g. in case of Coulomb’s electrostatic force law, the force between two charged particle is attractive because of multiplication of opposite sign of charge on the particles making negative sign for attractive electrostatic force. While in case of repulsive force, there is multiplication of same sign of charge on the particles making positive value for repulsive electrostatic force. As per law of gravitation, the sign of G must be negative; and dimensional analysis of constant ‘G’ shows that either (Kg/m3) or (Sec2) must be negative. But, Sec2 is a positive value, hence sign of (Kg/m3) must be negative. The gravitational force is an action at a distance force similar to electromagnetic force. In electromagnetic force (action at a distance force), ?0 (Permittivity of free space) and ?0 (Permeability of free space) are constants representing one of the property of space. Hence, G as a constant must have to represent the property of the space. In other words, the above dimensional analysis of ‘G’ shows that property of space representing (Kg/m3) must be negative and that property of space is nothing but critical density of vacuum (space). Or, Critical Density of Vacuum (Space) must be Negative i.e. â€Å"Empty Space must be filled of negative energy particles†. Or what we are saying about â€Å"Dark Matter/ Dark Energy is actually Negative Energy Particles†. Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and Mass of Neutrino In 1965, Penzias and Wilson announced the discovery of the Cosmic Microwave Background. They observed an excess flux at 7.35 cm wavelength equivalent to the radiation from a blackbody with a temperature of 2.725 degrees Kelvin. The temperature of the CMB is almost the same all over the sky. The effect of CMB is not because of adiabatic cooling of photons due to expansion of Universe from the big bang as per big bang theory, but it is continuous ongoing effect due to uncertainty principle. These CMB radiations or positive energy particles are opposite pair of dark energy in the Universe. Following simple calculation will show that mass of these CMB radiations is closer to the mass of neutrino, M (Approx. 10-39 Kg). From Wien’s Law, a blackbody (the Universe) at temperature T has a maximum wavelength of ?max (m)=0.0029/T. Using this value in Planck’s relation for the CMB radiations, we find E=M*C2=h*f=(h*C)/?max (2) M*C2=(h*C*T)/0.0029 Solving for the Mass (M), we have M=(h*T)/(C*0.0029) =(6.62*10-34*2.725)/(3*108*0.0029) =2.0754 * 10-39 Kg The continuous creation of pairs of energy of opposite sign, due to uncertainty principle solves the horizon problem (the extreme uniformity of CMB radiations in different regions of space). Also, it solves the flatness problem. Flatness problem means the density of the universe is pretty close to the critical density. Zero Energy and No Boundary Condition of the Universe As per thermodynamics, zero energy means no volume condition i.e. no boundary condition. From above theory, the Universe must be started from zero energy or no boundary condition and is still expanding in zero energy or no boundary condition by converting zero energy into pair of positive and negative energy particles due to uncertainty principle. Or, The Universe is expanding in No Boundary Condition. In other words, the Universe not started with big bang explosion, but the matters in the Universe were created with continuous increase in the size of the Universe. The Universe is expanding at the speed equal to the speed of light, from Hubble’s Law. After every one second, the increase in the radius of the Universe must be equal to 3*108 m, or, dR/dt=C=3*108 m/sec. The density of the Universe always remains constant equal to the critical density of vacuum. Let us calculate the matter in the Universe after one second from the birth of the Universe due to uncertainty principle. R=Radius of the Universe after 1 Second=3*108 m, Therefore, M=Matter in the Universe after 1 Second=Rho(Critical)*{4*Pi*R3/3} {Where, Rho(Critical)=Critical Density of Vacuum=7.94*10-27 Kg/m3 for H=Hubble’s constant=65 Km/Sec/Mpc}. = 7.94*10-27*4*(22/7)*(3*108)3/3 =0.9 Kg From above, during early stage, the Universe was not as hot as per big bang theory; but, it was too cold. The gravity effect was very negligible to halt the expansion of the Universe. Hence, the Universe expanded with no barrier for its expansion. With further expansion of the Universe, the gravity effect becomes considerable due to tremendous increase in the matter. From above formula, it can be shown that just after 1000 years; the matter in the Universe was around 2.8* 1031 Kg or 14 times the mass of the sun. It was spread around the Universe everywhere in the radius of approx. 9.48*1018 m (1000*3.16*107*3*108 m) instead of collecting at single point; it was segregated making clusters of matter which finally converts into galaxies. Thus, this theory also solves the structure problem i.e. the existence of large scale structure, like walls of cluster of galaxies and voids. According to Hubble’s law, the age of the Universe is equal to 1/H which is 15 Billion years old. Hence, the size of the Universe (R), is- R=C*t=3*108*15*109*3.16*107=0.142*1027 m Where, 1Year=3.16*107 Sec. The total matter (M) in the Universe after 15 billion years is, M=7.94*10-27*4*(22/7)*(0.142*1027)3/3 M=9.52*1052 Kg (4) Same amount of dark matter exists in the form of space, so that total energy in the Universe becomes equal to zero. The above calculated value of total mass in the Universe is quiet acceptable due to existence of more than billion of galaxies in the Universe and more than billion of stars in a galaxy. Let us calculate how much amount of matter; the Universe must be creating per second at this moment. dV=Increase in Volume of the Universe per second=4*(22/7)*{(R2)3-(R1)3}/3. Where, R1=0.14*1027m and R2-R1=3*108 m ? dV=4*(22/7)*(R2-R1)*{(R2)2+R2*R1+(R1)2}/3=4*(22/7)*3*108*3*(0.142*1027)2/3 R2?R1 =76*1060 m3 ? Increase in Matter of the Universe per Second=7.94*10-27*76*1060 = 0.60*1036 Kg (5) From above it is seen that, really, â€Å"Size does Matter†; i.e., larger the size of the Universe, greater is the creation of matter per second. This large amount of matter (in terms of radiations) at the edge of the Universe may be the source of Gamma rays burst which occurs sixteen times a month and to be roughly uniformly distributed in all direction across the sky. Disappearance of the Sun, Zero Energy and Gravity What will happen, if the sun disappears suddenly? According to Newton’s Classical Theory, the planets will start to move away from the sun instantaneously due to absence of gravitational force. While according to A. Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, there is a universal limit equal to speed of light for transformation of information from one point to another point. Hence, the planets will not start to move away from the sun at same time, but the disappearance of the sun will produce the gravitational waves (Space-time waves) travelling at the speed of light and when these waves will reach towards the planets, they will start to move away from the sun. But, both these theories are on wrong track. Because disappearance of the sun means all energy of the sun vanishes suddenly which will create zero energy density region having volume equal to the volume of the sun. Now, as proved earlier, space is nothing but negative energy; hence the energy density around the su n is negative. Therefore, this zero energy density will exert force on negative energy particles having direction away from the center of the sun. We know that, Force=Mass*Acceleration. But, here, the mass is negative; hence these negative energy particles must have to accelerate towards the center of the sun (-Ve Acceleration). When this effect will reach towards the planets with speed of the light as per general theory of the relativity, the planets will experience attractive force proportional to their mass because of acceleration of space which is nothing but the gravity. The overall effect will be the movement of the planets towards the center of the sun instead of moving away from the sun. This acceleration must be more than the gravitational acceleration produced due to the presence of the sun, because gravitational acceleration produced by the sun is only due to annihilation of the positive mass of the sun with negative mass of the space. From above the gravity can be define d as below: â€Å"Gravitational force is an action at a distance force which is due to creation of zero energy density region around the positive mass because of annihilation of this positive mass with negative mass of the space.† From above analysis, two points come ahead viz. – The source object in order to produce gravitational effect on the other objects must have to lose its mass continuously by making annihilation with negative mass of the space. The object which experiences the gravitational force does not receive any amount of energy from the source object. Hence, for making displacement against the gravitational pull, it must have to convert its available energy into kinetic energy equivalent to the gravitational force multiplied by the displacement made by the object. For e.g., the ball releases from certain height, on the earth, should have to convert its available rest energy into kinetic energy because the ball does not receive any type of energy from the earth. Hence, the rest energy of the ball is not always remains constant, but should have to decrease by converting into kinetic energy. Let us derive the new energy balance equation for both the cases i.e. free fall of the object under gravity and the object thrown in upward direction against gravity of the earth between points A and B (RA>RB). Case 1: In case of a body, falling freely under gravity, there is a continuous conversion of its rest energy into kinetic energy such that at any point in its path, the total energy of the body always remains constant equals to the rest energy of the body. Thus, for freely falling body, (Rest Energy)A=(Reduced Rest Energy)B+(K.E.)B (6) From above formula, let us calculate, the velocity V, at which all the rest energy of the ball converts into the kinetic energy. Therefore, (Reduced Rest Energy)B become equals to zero i.e. (Rest Energy)A = (K.E.)B. From special theory of relativity, (Rest Energy)A=(M0*C2)=(Kinetic Energy)B={M0*C2*[(1/sqrt(1-(V2/C2)))-1]} ? V={?3/ 2}*C= 0.866*C = 2.598*108 m/s (7) As per special theory of relativity, the particle like photon should have only kinetic energy and no rest energy because they are travelling at the speed of light. Hence, at the above derived velocity, the entire kinetic energy of the ball should have to convert into photons where energy of each photon depends upon the temperature of the ball at this velocity, V. Suppose any charged particle (say electron, -Ve charge) falls freely under the influence of very strong gravitational force, then, the entire rest energy of the electron must have to convert into kinetic energy at above derived velocity. But, the electron will never converts into photons because of law of conservation of charge. The charge on the particle prevents conversion of its available energy into photons or in terms of radiations. Charge helps to conserve available energy. If rest energy of particle does not convert into K.E., then charge on particle must have to conserve this rest energy or prevent to convert this re st energy into photons. In other words, Charge is responsible for Rest Energy or Conservation of Energy in Charged Particles. Hence, existence of matter (Galaxies, stars, planets and finally living cells like human being) is due to charge without which entire universe must be filled of only radiations. Any neutral particle if carry some amount of energy, all its stored energy should have to convert into K.E. as there is no such a thing like charge which will prevent conversion of this stored energy into the form of K.E. and then into the form of photons. Neutral particle should have to carry only Kinetic Energy. Therefore, free neutrons are not stable, because neutrons do not carry any charge, hence all its stored energy must have to convert into Kinetic Energy, while in nucleus of atom, the charge on proton prevents neutron to convert its available rest energy into kinetic energy. Case 2: Consider a ball thrown in upward direction against gravitational field of the earth from point B to point A. As per classical theory, for throwing a ball in upward direction, we have to supply kinetic energy to the ball, which then converts into potential energy, when ball after achieving certain height comes to rest. First of all, the concept of supplying kinetic energy to the ball looks like strange idea, because there is only one way of supplying kinetic energy to any system i.e. nothing but photons. Here, you are supplying only kinetic energy and no rest energy to the ball and for achieving this, you have to transfer photons from your body through hand to the ball without any loss of photons to the surrounding. Is it possible? No. In case of inertia also, when we apply the force on an object (Inertial Mass) in order to move it with certain velocity, we are not transferring any type of kinetic energy to the object by application of force. In all these cases (inertia mass as well a s gravitational mass) the object converts some amount of its available rest energy into the kinetic energy which depends upon the value of force. Thus, this theory also achieves â€Å"Equivalence between Gravitational Mass and Inertial Mass† from the point of view that â€Å"Due to Application of Force in both cases, the object converts some amount of its rest energy into kinetic energy which depends upon the value of the force†. Therefore, (Rest Energy)A=(Reduced Rest Energy)B+(K.E.)B (8) The equations (6) and (8) both are same which shows consistency in this theory. The theory also eliminates the need of potential energy which is required in case of classical theory, where to determine potential energy at any point some datum reference point is required like surface of the earth. Why experiment have not been conducted to know the difference of rest mass (or rest energy) at point A and at point B, when the object will be thrown in upward direction. If experiment is carried out, you should get same amount of rest mass at both points as per this theory; while as per classical theory, the object at point A should have rest mass when it is at rest plus the mass equivalent to supplied kinetic energy at point B. Casimir Effect and Zero Energy It is a small attractive force that acts between two close parallel uncharged conducting plates. Its existence was first predicted by the Dutch physicist Hendrick Casimir in 1948 and confirmed experimentally by Steven Lamoreaux, in 1996. According to modern physics, one can interpret these so called vacuum fluctuations, as pairs of particles and anti particles that suddenly appear together, move apart, and then come back together again, and annihilate each other. But, it is not true. In fact, this effect can be considered as gravitational force between these plates. The negative energy particles (space) between these plates annihilates with positive mass of these plates creating zero energy density between them. While surrounding energy density remains same due to lot of negative energy particles around the plates. This zero energy density is nothing but gravitational pull as proved earlier. Hence, these plates attract towards each other. Therefore, as per modern physics, this effect cannot be linked with the possibility of faster than light (FLT). Loss of Mass of Black Holes and Jets of Black Holes From new definition of gravity, higher the mass of the object, not only there will be more destroy of space (negative energy) giving rise to strong gravitational field. There is same amount of destroy of mass of the object. In other words, for massive objects like black hole, due to above gravity effect, the continuous loss in mass of the black hole should take place. Also, for any object falling freely in strong gravitational field of the black hole, it’s all rest energy must be converted into kinetic energy by gaining velocity, V equals to {(?3/ 2)*C}. The temperature of the object at this velocity must be very high; hence its kinetic energy should have to convert into high energy photons like Gamma rays or X rays making jets around the black holes. Gravitational Red Shift of the Spectral Lines and Loss of Energy It is observed that the wavelength of sodium light coming from the sun (strong gravitational field) is greater than that from the sodium lamp on the earth which gives slight displacement in spectrum of light towards the red end called as gravitational red shift of spectral lines. It is considered as the effect of time dilation (a clock lying in a gravitational field appears to run slow) given in general theory of relativity. But, the time dilation should occur only in strong gravitational field of the sun and is very less in case of gravity of the earth. Therefore, even if it is consider that red shift is due to time dilation on the sun, the light after reaching on the earth from the sun, the red shift in spectral line should have to disappear due to very less time dilation on the earth. Thus, gravitational red shift is not due to effect of time dilation. The photon due to its mass (in terms of kinetic energy) experiences force due to gravity effect produced by the sun. In order to m ove away from the surface of the sun, the photon has to do work against gravity of the sun. Therefore, the energy balance equation can be written as: K.E. of photon at surface of the sun=K.E. of photon at surface of the earth+Work done by photon. This work done must be converted into less energy photons (different wavelength than original photons) which make loss in energy of the main photon. Hence the photon which receives at surface of the earth has energy less than that produced on the sun by amount equal to work done by photon. Therefore, we observed the gravitational red shift of the spectral lines. Curvature of Space-Time and Bending of Light According to Einstein’s General theory of Relativity, a body of high mass bends the space-time continuum around itself. The continuum becomes curved. In May 1919, during total solar eclipse, the deviations in the position of the stars which appears to be lying in the neighborhood of the sun disc were observed in gravitational field of the sun due to the deflection or bending of the rays of light coming from stars. Hence, confirming this prediction of the General theory of Relativity. In fact, there is no such a thing happening like curvature of space-time continuum in strong gravitational field. There is nothing like singularity in case of black holes or concepts like worm holes, the terms appears due to curvature of space-time continuum. The correct reason for the bending of light in strong gravitational field can be explained as below: The photon contains energy in the form of kinetic energy, (K.E.=m*C2); hence, the energy or mass of the photon experiences strong gravitational force. We know from Newton’s first law of motion, force is that external agent which changes the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body along a straight line. By applying a force we can change (1) the magnitude or (2) the direction or (3) both magnitude and direction of the velocity of the body. In case of photon, it is travelling at the speed of light; hence, it is not possible to reduce its velocity as per special theory of relativity. Therefore, the effect of gravitational force is to change the direction of photon from rectilinear motion. The following simple calculation will show that the bending of light do not depends upon energy of the light, but entirely depends upon its distance from the sun and mass of the sun. Thus, for all type of photons from higher energy to lower energy photons, the bending effect remain same whic h is considered by Einstein as curvature of space-time. Consider a ray of light which is travelling in a rectilinear direction at a distance of 109 m from center of the sun and parallel to the surface of the sun. Then, as per second kinematical equation and from Newton’s law of gravitation, S=Displacement of photon towards the sun=(u*t+0.5*g*t2), where, u=Initial velocity of the photon in the direction of displacement=0; g= Gravitational strength of the sun or acceleration of photon=-(G*M)/R2, G=Gravitational Constant=6.67*10-11 m3/(Kg*Sec2), M=Mass of the sun=2*1030 Kg, and R=Distance of photon from the sun=109 m. Let us calculate this displacement of the photon for time of travel equal to 1 Sec. Note that, the above eq. is independent of energy or matter of photon. S={0*1-[(0.5*6.67*10-11*2*1030*12) / (109)2]}=-66.7 m Figure 1: Bending of light The Projectile motion of light under strong gravity From above figure.1, for one second of travel of photon or for travel of photon at a distance equal to 3*108 m, the photon is displaced towards the sun about 66.7 m. Thus, the effect of bending of light in strong gravitational field of the sun is not due to any curvature of space-time, but it is the case of the projectile motion under the influence of gravity. It is similar to the parabolic path made by the ball on the earth which is thrown in upward direction at an angle to the surface of the earth. Therefore, there is nothing like concept of curvature of space-time in case of defining gravity. Microscopic Level (Matter and Anti-Matter) The Difference Between Mass of Electron and Proton In case of electrostatic force, we can use same equation (6) or (8) from point of view of application of force (i.e. no supply of kinetic energy from external medium). Here, the kinetic energy of the electron will be integral of electrostatic energy between radius during the origin of the electron (i.e. from the neutron) and the orbital radius of the electron around nucleus of atom (For H2 atom, the orbital radius of the electron at ground state is 5.29*10-11 m). The equation can be written as below: (Reduced Rest Energy)=(Rest Energy)-(Kinetic Energy) (9) But, Kinetic Energy = ? (Fe*dR) = ? {q2/ (4*?*?0*R2)}*dR = ? {e/ R2}*dR e= {q2/ (4*?*?_0)} ? Kinetic Energy = {(e/R1)-(e/R2)} = {(e*(R2-R1))/(R2*R1)} Where, R1=Radius during origin of the electron and R2= Orbital radius of the electron in H2 atom If the R.H. side of the above equation (Reduced Rest Energy) becomes equal to zero, then we can calculate the radius during origin or birth of the electron. By rearranging terms, we get R1 = {(e*R2)/((R2*M0*C2)+e)} = {(2.567*9*10-29*5.29*10-11)/((5.29*10-11*9.1095*10-31*9*1016)+(2.567*9*10-29))} ? R1 = 2.8178*10-15 m (10) Where, M0=Rest mass of the electron=9.1095*10-31 Kg This is closer to the radius of the neutron which shows that the birth of electron occurs at periphery of neutron. The above calculation shows that â€Å"Rest Mass of Electron i.e. 9.1095*10-31 Kg is due to Birth of Electron takes place at Periphery of Neutron i.e. apprx. at 2.82*10-15 m†. Note that the value of R1